What composes a "system of apportionment"? If a system of apportionment is to be devised to accommodate and pursue certain values, the system must be sufficiently understood, together with its effects upon neighboring systems. An aircraft is designed as a mechanical-human system (e.g., the bomber) in relation to a human organization(e.g., the Navy), in relation to a coordinate system (e.g., the Marines), in relation to superordinate systems (e.g., foreign policy). Similarly, an appointment is a system of human organization related intimately to a larger election system that is in turn related to governmental institutions, such as the executive branch or the bureaucracy, and is done in relation to the ways in which men live and desire to live (private and public policies).

Listed next is a set of criteria for describing an election system. Apportionment systems are included within it.

CHECK LIST FOR THE DESCRIPTION OF A METHOD OF SELECTING OR ELECTING PUBLIC OFFICERS

Character of Officer

Title of position

General location of constituency

Tenure of Office:

Indefinite, months or years, or other

Minimum age requirement

Citizenship requirement

Type of residency requirement

Political party:

Membership required

Party nomination needed

Primary election provided

Education

Literacy and how tested

Formal education

Information

Ability

Fees, nominal or substantial

Sex limitations

Real property ownership

Income

Rent

Number of acres

Personal property required and amount

Tax payment, amount required

Religious qualification

Functional proficiency

Military, legal, religious, other professional, trades

Master, managerial, business entrepreneurial, or other

Experience

Seniority, private functional, private functional representative of official, public office holding, military, legal

Religious, other professional, trades, managerial, business

Entrepreneurial, fraternal, or other

Number of offices of the same qualification filled at the same time

(*) Number of officers appointed or elected at the same time from other levels of government

Number of officers of the same grade in the same constituency

General functions of the officer

Major or minor policy

Major or minor administrative

Judicial, including judicial policy

Primarily honorary

Primarily delegative

Character of Constituency

Size of constituency in population

Approximate size of constituency in travel time (for historical cases adjust time according to the age)

Manner in which constituency is grouped and derived

Historical

By survey (including specifications of compactness and contiguity)

Existing independent jurisdiction

Sociological definition

General functions of constituency during the tenure of the officer

Occupational

Solely electoral

Public policy

Public executive

Public juridical

Provisions for the adjustment of constituency specifications

Periodic

Automatic

Authoritatively adjusted

Natural constituencies or other Residence qualifications of constituents

Age qualification of constituents

Political qualifications of constituents

Party member

Office holder, public or private

Banning of outlawed party members

Banning of outlawed political activists

Sex limitations on constituency

Educational limits

Penal or mental disqualifications

Citizenship requirements

Real property requirements

Personal property requirements

Tax paying requirements

Religious requirements

Functional proficiency

Experience of constituents

Requirement of belonging to special groups such as military, legal,religious, or trade

Instructions: voluntary, compulsory, or forbidden

Procedures of Selection

The type of ballot

None

Official

Candidate-provided

Party-provided

Voter-provided

Printed, balls or other kinds

Mode of casting ballot

Viva voce

No formal vote

Secret

Public or other type of tally

Election place

Specified or unspecified

Central, unassembled

Mail, or other unassembled

Assembled

Size of voting district

Counting votes

One vote to one candidate

Weighted preferences on ballot

Weighted preferences in counting

One vote for list or slate

Election formula

Unspecified majority

Majority of electorate

Majority of voters

Majority of specified quorum

Unspecified plurality

Plurality of electorate

Plurality of voters

Plurality of specified quorum

Two-thirds majority, unspecified

Other two-thirds majority type

Unspecified unanimity

Unanimity of voters or electorate

Unanimity of specified quorum

A portion of constituents for officer selected to the total constituents

Unspecified beyond "election"

Unspecified beyond "appointment"

Limits on Compaigning

Limitation of expenditures

Amounts

Types

Reporting

Limitation of propaganda

Amounts

Types

Reporting

Limitation of agitation (meetings, assemblies, etc.)

Amounts

Type¹

¹From Alfred de Grazia, Apportionment and Representative Government (Praeger) pp. 13-16.

Despite its length, the list still only summarizes many types of variable. Thus, in regard to the one item marked (*), at least sixteen combinations for holding elections on different levels of government are possible. Each combination results in different turnout, issues, and even candidates. One might note, too, how many ways of counting the winner there are; the majority principle is common, but many other principles, such as the plurality, are used. As with the twenty-six-letter alphabet that can provide millions of words, the basic elements of any election system can provide millions of differing effects.

To summarize thus far: An applied science of equality in apportionment will exist when the following events occur:

1.

We know what apportionment systems are and understand their effects, both directly and in relation to our institutions, particularly the electoral institutions.

2.

We know the effects of present systems of apportionment (or at least those under consideration) upon the human beings of the apportioned population.

3.

We set a goal for equality in apportionment. We have a particular definition of equality so that we can say: Equality of apportionment is said to be present when we have in being a given set of conditions.

4.

We have the power to bring into being the apportionment system that produces the equality being sought, with only those effects upon other parts of the environment that have been foreseen and accepted.

The "equi-populous district" system is a system whereby a population is divided into equal numbers of people as these people reside "on the map." I have demonstrated in earlier writings that there are several assumptions hidden behind even this limited definition and that in any event we can only approach, say, within 5 per cent of this ideal, using population of all ages and types as the basis of the apportionment and striving to make the equal numbers criterion the absolute one.