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ALFRED DE GRAZIA
Volume Two of
THE ELEMENTS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
NEW, REVISED EDITION
in Two Volumes
| CHAPTER 1 : The State and Authority |
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| Defining the State and Sovereignty |
| THE STATE-TERRITORY, POPULATION, GOVERNMENT INDEPENDENCE |
| NO "LAW" OF STATE EVOLUTION |
| MYTH OF THE SOCIAL COMPACT |
| SOVEREIGNTY |
| LEGITIMACY |
| THE THREE TYPES OF LEGITIMACY |
| LEGITIMACY IS OFTEN MIXED |
| LEGITIMACY AND DISORDER |
| The Instruments of Authority |
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| LEGITIMACY ABETS POWER |
| POLITICAL EDUCATION AND PROPAGANDA |
| FORCE AND VIOLENCE |
| ECONOMIC MEASURES AND MANIPULATION |
| POLITICAL INSTRUMENTS ARE COMMONLY EMPLOYED TOGETHER |
| The Classification of Governmental Forms |
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| CLASSIFICATION BY FORMS OF LEGITIMACY |
| THE CLASSICAL DIVISION |
| ELITE AND MASS |
| DEGREE OF CENTRALIZATION |
| FORMS OF INTEGRATION |
| The Limits of State Activity |
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| EXTENT OF GOVERNMENT REGULATION |
| LIMITS OF GOVERNMENTAL ACTIVITY |
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| CHAPTER 2 : Law and Constitutionalism |
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| The Analysis of Law |
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| THREE WAYS OF STUDYING LAW |
| LAW AS CUSTOM |
| LAW AS ETHICAL PRINCIPLES |
| LEGAL RELATIVISM VERSUS "NATURAL LAW" |
| LAW DEFINED |
| THE QUALITIES OF LAW EXPLAINED |
| LAWS CLASSIFIED BY FORMAL AUTHORSHIP |
| THE COMMON LAW |
| JUDGE-MADE LAW |
| LEGISLATION |
| POPULAR LAW |
| OTHER CLASSIFICATIONS ARE USEFUL |
| Development of Constitutions |
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| CONSTITUTION DEFINED |
| ORIGIN OF THE TERM |
| LEVELLER CRITICISMS OF THE ENGLISH CONSTITUTION |
| EARLY CONSTITUTIONAL IDEAS IN AMERICA |
| CONSTITUTIONS OF THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD |
| POLITICAL OPPONENTS STAND AGREED ON CONSTITUTIONS |
| AMENDMENT |
| CONSTITUTIONS AND AMERICAN LEGALISM |
| THE IMPORTANT CONSEQUENCES OF AN "UNCHANGEABLE" CONSTITUTION |
| MEANINGLESS WRITTEN CONSTITUTIONS |
| Constitutionalism |
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| CONSTITUTIONALISM AND CONSENSUS |
| RULE OF LAW DEFINED |
| JURIDICAL DEFENSE DEFINED |
| FACTORS AFFECTING CONSTITUTIONALISM |
| SEPARATION OF POWERS |
| ECONOMIC CONCENTRATIONS |
| CHURCH-STATE SEPARATION |
| STANDING ARMIES |
| ROLE OF UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE |
| THE VARIOUS FACTORS OPERATE TOGETHER IN CONSTITUTIONALISM |
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| CHAPTER 3 : Legislatures |
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| Government by Legislature |
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| COMING OF THE AGE OF LEGISLATIVE SUPREMACY |
| LIMITS TO POWER OF LEGISLATURES ALWAYS PRESENT |
| MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF LEGISLATURES |
| BICAMERALISM |
| CONSERVATISM OF UPPER HOUSES |
| DECLINE OF UPPER HOUSES |
| EFFECTS OF REMAINING DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TILE TWO CHAMBERS |
| SPECIAL QUALIFICATIONS FOR CANDIDACIES |
| SIZE OF THE CHAMBERS |
| PAY OF MEMBERS |
| TENURE AND TURNOVER OF MEMBERSHIP |
| DIFFERENCES IN GEOGRAPHICAL APPORTIONMENT |
| Legislative Organization and Procedure |
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| LEGISLATURES FOUNDED ON OPPOSING FORCES |
| "ESPRIT DE CORPS" OF ASSEMBLIES |
| CLASH OF EGALITARIAN AND OLIGARCHIC PRINCIPLES IN LEGISLATURES |
| FORMAL LEGISLATIVE PROCEDURE AND INFORMAL PROCESS |
| THE STRUGGLE FOR CONTROL OF OFFICES AND COMMITTEES |
| EXTERNAL INFLUENCES ENTERING THE LEGISLATIVE PROCESS |
| EXECUTIVE INFLUENCE |
| AGENCY PRESSURES |
| EFFECTS OF PRESSURE GROUPS |
| LEGISLATIVE BLOCS |
| PUBLIC OPINION |
| THE BRITISH CONTRAST |
| THE FRENCH PATTERN |
| THE SUPREME SOVIET OF THE U.S.S.R. |
| The Critical Age of Legislatures |
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| AGE OF LEGISLATIVE SUPREMACY OVER |
| DIFFICULTY OF DEFINING LOCAL INTERESTS |
| WHY LOCALISM IS A SORE POINT TODAY |
| DOES A NATIONAL INTEREST EXIST? |
| CERTAIN LEGISLATURES STILL FORMIDABLE IMPEDIMENTS TO EXECUTIVES |
| DECLINE OF RESPECT FOR LEGISLATURES |
| RESIGNATION OF THE ACTIVE COMMERCIAL CLASSES |
| CLASS POLITICS ARE ANTI-LEGISLATURE |
| NATIONALISM FAVORS THE EXECUTIVE |
| INDICES OF THE LEGISLATURE'S WEAKENING |
| THE DEFENSE: ATTACK ON THE "NATIONAL INTEREST" IDEA |
| ALLIANCES OF LEGISLATURES WITH GROUP INTERESTS |
| CONTROLLING THE EXECUTIVE |
| LEGISLATURES MAY CLAIM ONLY A CRITICAL FUNCTION |
| INCREASING THE MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY OF LEGISLATURES |
| CLEANER DESKS AND SCIENTIFIC PROCEDURES |
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| CHAPTER 4 : Executives and Chiefs of State |
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| Functions of the Executive |
| EXECUTIVES AND ADMINISTRATORS DISTINGUISHED |
| UNIVERSAL TASKS OF AN EXECUTIVE |
| THE PLACE OF SUBJECT-MATTER KNOWLEDGE |
| THE DEMANDS OF POLITICS AGAINST ADMINISTRATIVE SKILL |
| U.S.S.R. HIERARCHY FAVORS POLITICS OVER SPECIALIZED SKILL |
| DISCIPLINE AMONG TOP EXECUTIVES |
| The Presidency: A Case Study |
| REPRESENTATIVE, LEADER, AND ADMINISTRATOR |
| THE PRESIDENT EXPRESSES NATIONAL SENTIMENTS |
| THE PRESIDENT AS POLICY LEADER |
| RECOMMENDING LEGISLATION |
| VETO POWER |
| FOREIGN RELATIONS |
| EXECUTION OF THE LAWS |
| EXECUTIVE DISCRETION |
| EXECUTIVE COMMANDS |
| APPOINTMENT AND REMOVAL POWER |
| THE EXECUTIVE BUDGET |
| NEW FORMS OF DISCRETION |
| Top Executive Structures |
| THE ROLE OF CHIEF EXECUTIVES IN A CULTURE |
| SIGNIFICANCE OF SINGLE EXECUTIVES |
| ADMINISTRATION HAS DEVELOPED FROM PERSONAL RULE |
| EFFECTS OF THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD |
| AMERICAN TRIALS OF EXECUTIVE ARRANGEMENTS |
| THE LEGISLATIVE- AND CONSTITUENCY-INFLUENCED DECENTRALIZED EXECUTIVE |
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| CHAPTER 5 : Public Administration |
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| The Goals of Administration |
| FUNCTIONAL GOALS |
| INSTRUMENTAL GOALS |
| STIPULATED GOALS |
| INTRUSIVE GOALS |
| Productivity and Utilization of Resources |
| THE USE OF POSDCORB IN HIERARCHICAL PYRAMIDS |
| THE DIVISION OF LABOR |
| LONG TENURE OF OFFICE AND "PAPER MEMORY" |
| ORGANIZATION OF A GOVERNMENTAL FUNCTION |
| LINE, AUXILIARY, AND STAFF AGENCIES |
| EFFICIENCY CONTROLS IN THE U.S.S.R. |
| JOB CLASSIFICATION |
| FORMAL AND INFORMAL ORGANIZATION |
| DISCIPLINE AND INTERNAL CONTROLS |
| INFORMAL PENALTIES USED MORE THAN FORMAL |
| Effects on the Administered Population |
| MINIMIZING THE DISTURBANCES CAUSED BY POLICIES |
| ADMINISTRATIVE POWERS OVER PEOPLE |
| IMPORTANCE OF AGGRESSIVE-DEFENSIVE PATTERN OF AGENCY ACTIONS |
| CONFLICTS BETWEEN "EFFICIENCY" AND "HUMAN RESISTANCES" |
| WHEN FORCE ENCOUNTERS RESISTANCES, PSYCHOLOGICAL METHODS ARE FOSTERED |
| HOW TO DETERMINE DISTRESS AMONG THE ADMINISTERED |
| THE SAMPLE SURVEY |
| Consultation with Administered Populations |
| CONSULTATION MEANS CO-ADMINISTRATION |
| DIFFICULTIES OF CONSULTATION |
| Personal Careers and Partisanship |
| INTRUSIVE OBJECTIVES OF ADMINISTRATION |
| PRIVATE MOTIVES FOR PUBLIC SERVICE |
| PRIVATE MOTIVES TAMED BY THE SERVICE |
| PROMOTION BY MERIT NO SIMPLE MATTER |
| PARTISANSHIP AND ADMINISTRATION |
| CAN PARTIES DO WITHOUT PATRONAGE? |
| The Customs of Administrative Offices |
| AGENCIES EXIST FOR THEIR OWN SAKE |
| STRUGGLE FOR SURVIVAL AND EMPIRE-BUILDING |
| "OCCUPATIONAL PERSONALITY" |
| AMERICAN BUREAUCRACY NOT RIGID |
| HOW BUREAUCRATIC PERSONALITY IS BORN |
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| CHAPTER 6 : The Courts |
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| The Rise and Power of Court Systems |
| SELF-HELP IN LAW ENFORCEMENT |
| DEVELOPMENT OF ROMAN AND ENGLISH LAW SYSTEMS |
| ROMAN LAW MORE SYSTEMATIC |
| ENGLISH-TYPE COURTS MORE HOSTILE TO LEGISLATION |
| ROMAN AND TEUTONIC LAW SIDE BY SIDE FOR CENTURIES |
| NEITHER SYSTEM IDENTIFIED WITH "LIBERTY" |
| THE GROWTH OF JUDICIAL INDEPENDENCE |
| ENGLISH COURTS AND THE SEPARATION OF POWERS |
| ENGLISH COURT SYSTEM |
| FRENCH COURT SYSTEM AND THE ADMINISTRATIVE COURTS |
| APPOINTMENT AND ELECTION OF JUDGES IN AMERICA |
| Judicial Review and the American Courts |
| JUDICIAL REVIEW NOT A RADICAL STEP |
| MARBURY V. MADISON |
| CONFLICT OVER THE DECISION |
| THE RESULTS OF JUDICIAL REVIEW CONSIDERABLE |
| THE FEDERAL COURT SYSTEM BASED ON CONSTITUTION |
| INDEPENDENT STATE COURT SYSTEMS |
| The Judicial Process |
| JUDICIAL PROCESS AND CONSTITUTIONALISM |
| THE IMPORTANT ELEMENTS OF JUDICIAL PROCESS |
| WIDE VARIETY OF PROCEDURES AMONG VARIOUS LEVELS OF COURTS |
| CERTAIN RIGHTS PRESENT GENERALLY |
| INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENT ON COURT PROCEDURE |
| JUSTICE METED OUT IS INFLUENCED BY SOCIETY |
| SOCIAL AND POLITICAL PRESSURES |
| EFFECT OF MODE OF SELECTION |
| PERSONALITY OF JUDGES A FACTOR |
| JUDICIAL LOGIC NOT A CLOSED SYSTEM |
| THE IMPOSSIBILITY OF PURELY "DEDUCTIVE" LAW |
| THE "LAW" AS "PROPHECY" |
| THE FALLACIOUS IDEA OF "NO RULES IN LAW" |
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| CHAPTER 7 : Local Institutions |
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| From Tribe to Metropolis |
| UNIVERSAL NATURE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT |
| THE SUBJECTION OF INDEPENDENT CITIES TO NATIONS |
| REGIONALISM AND LOCALISM REMAIN STRONG |
| ADMINISTRATIVE REGIONALISM VERSUS POLITICAL REGIONALISM |
| ADMINISTRATIVE DISTRICTS |
| UNITS OF GOVERNMENT |
| URBANIZATION |
| URBAN AND RURAL SOCIETIES |
| THE INTERNAL COMPLICATIONS OF LOCAL SOCIETY |
| LOCAL ATTACHMENTS VARY AMONG INDIVIDUALS |
| LOCAL PROXIMITY GROUPS |
| HIGH PHYSICAL MOBILITY IN AMERICA |
| THE SUBURBAN PROBLEM |
| Patterns of Local Political Institutions |
| COMMON FEATURES OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT |
| LEGISLATION REGULATING LOCAL GOVERNMENT COMES FROM ABOVE |
| STRUCTURE OF CONTROL FROM ABOVE |
| ADMINISTRATIVE RULE IN FRANCE |
| THE COMMUNIST PARTY AS SUPERVISOR OF SOVIET LOCALITIES |
| LOCAL POLITICAL OFFICERS |
| FUNCTIONS OF LOCAL OFFICERS ANALOGOUS TO NATIONAL ONES |
| THE STRUCTURE OF AMERICAN CITY GOVERNMENT |
| CITY COUNCILS |
| COUNCIL-MANAGER FORM STRESSES EFFICIENCY |
| COMMISSION AND TOWN-MEETING FORMS |
| AMERICAN TOWNSHIP AND COUNTY GOVERNMENT |
| GOVERNMENTAL FORMS MORE UNIFORM ABROAD |
| SEPARATION OF POWERS WEAK IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT |
| Politics, Patronage, and Administration |
| "COURTHOUSE GANG" AND CITY HALL |
| LOCAL GOVERNMENT WITHOUT POLITICS IMPOSSIBLE |
| LOCAL POLITICAL MACHINES AND ADMINISTRATION |
| LOCAL CAREER ADMINISTRATORS |
| Outstanding Local Problems |
| STATE-LOCAL CO-OPERATION |
| CONSOLIDATION OF UNITS OF GOVERNMENT |
| HOME-RULE MOVEMENTS |
| DISTINCTION BETWEEN ADMINISTRATIVE AND POLITICAL CONTROLS |
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| CHAPTER 8 : Federalism |
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| The Varieties of Federalism |
| LOCAL AND CENTRAL BODIES MAY BE DISSIMILAR |
| FEDERALISM A LOCAL-CENTRAL COMPROMISE |
| THE STRENGTH OF LOCAL VALUES |
| CENTRALIZATION NOT INEXORABLE DESTINY |
| THE DELIAN LEAGUE |
| THE GERMAN EMPIRE, 1870-1918 |
| THE SWISS CONFEDERACY |
| THE REPUBLIC OF ARGENTINA |
| THE BRITISH COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS |
| THE UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS |
| CONFEDERATION IN THE UNITED STATES |
| Federalism in America |
| THE SOLUTION OF THE CONSTITUTION |
| DIVISION OF FUNCTIONS AND AUTHORITY |
| INTERLOCKING RELATIONSHIPS |
| THE POLITICAL POWER |
| THE JUDICIAL POWER |
| THE TAXING POWER |
| THE PROTECTIVE POWER |
| SEPARATIST FEDERALISM |
| CO-OPERATIVE FEDERALISM |
| GRANTS |
| CONDITIONAL GRANTS |
| CO-OPERATION WITHOUT A FINANCIAL NEXUS |
| INTERSTATE RELATIONS |
| Modern Federalism in the Balance |
| FEDERALISM OPERATING UNDER ADVERSE CONDITIONS |
| SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CENTRALIZATION |
| ECONOMIC AND EXTERNAL CRISIS |
| INEQUALITIES AND DEPENDENCY OF LOCALITIES |
| ENTHUSIASM FOR UNIFORMITY |
| THE FAILURE OF WILL |
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| CHAPTER 9 : International Organization |
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| Roman World Order and Its Medieval Myth |
| ANCIENT GREEKS FAILED TO ORGANIZE PEACE |
| TECHNIQUES OF ROMAN EXPANSION |
| "E PLURIBUS UNUM" |
| "JUS GENTIUM" |
| THE PSYCHOLOGICAL HERITAGE OF ROME |
| The Equilibrium of Nations and International Law |
| FORMATION OF THE MODERN STATE SYSTEM |
| BALANCE OF POWER DISTINGUISHED |
| HISTORICAL EXAMPLES |
| THE STRATEGY OF THE BALANCE |
| PREMISES OF BALANCE-OF-POWER POLITICS |
| THE DECLINE OF DIPLOMACY |
| THE CAREER OF INTERNATIONAL LAW |
| METHODS OF SETTLING INTERNATIONAL DIFFERENCES |
| SOURCES AND SANCTIONS OF INTERNATIONAL LAW |
| Peace and Law by Co-operative Force |
| THE VARIETY OF PLANS |
| RELATION OF BALANCE OF POWER TO A WORLD ORDER |
| ORIGINS OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS |
| COMPLEX ORGANIZATION OF THE LEAGUE |
| THE FAILURE OF THE MAJOR GOALS |
| THE UNITED NATIONS TRIES AGAIN: THE SECURITY COUNCIL |
| THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY AND MINOR BODIES |
| Regionalism |
| Capabilities of the United Nations |
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| CHAPTER 10 : Epilogue: Political Science and the New World Order |
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| The New Political Science |
| SOURCES OF CHANGE |
| NEW METHODS AND SUBJECTS |
| THE FUTURE DISCIPLINE |
| INTERDISCIPLINARY WORK EXPANDED |
| THE NEW LANGUAGE |
| THE MACHINERY OF SCIENCE |
| POLICY SCIENCE TO BE ENLARGED |
| The Transforming World |
| RECENT ECONOMIC AND INSTITUTIONAL CHANGE |
| THE COMING CRISIS |
| THE COMMUNIST METHOD |
| CHANGING COMMUNISM |
| WEAKNESSES OF NON-COMMUNISTS |
| TIME AND EDUCATION |
| MILITARY STRENGTH AND CONTROLS NEEDED |
| THE VITAL INTELLIGENTSIA |
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| BIBLIOGRAPHY |
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