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ALFRED DE GRAZIA


Volume Two of

THE ELEMENTS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE



POLITICAL ORGANIZATION

NEW, REVISED EDITION
in Two Volumes


CHAPTER 1 : The State and Authority
Defining the State and Sovereignty
THE STATE-TERRITORY, POPULATION, GOVERNMENT INDEPENDENCE
NO "LAW" OF STATE EVOLUTION
MYTH OF THE SOCIAL COMPACT
SOVEREIGNTY
LEGITIMACY
THE THREE TYPES OF LEGITIMACY
LEGITIMACY IS OFTEN MIXED
LEGITIMACY AND DISORDER
The Instruments of Authority
LEGITIMACY ABETS POWER
POLITICAL EDUCATION AND PROPAGANDA
FORCE AND VIOLENCE
ECONOMIC MEASURES AND MANIPULATION
POLITICAL INSTRUMENTS ARE COMMONLY EMPLOYED TOGETHER
The Classification of Governmental Forms
CLASSIFICATION BY FORMS OF LEGITIMACY
THE CLASSICAL DIVISION
ELITE AND MASS
DEGREE OF CENTRALIZATION
FORMS OF INTEGRATION
The Limits of State Activity
EXTENT OF GOVERNMENT REGULATION
LIMITS OF GOVERNMENTAL ACTIVITY
 
 
CHAPTER 2 : Law and Constitutionalism
The Analysis of Law
THREE WAYS OF STUDYING LAW
LAW AS CUSTOM
LAW AS ETHICAL PRINCIPLES
LEGAL RELATIVISM VERSUS "NATURAL LAW"
LAW DEFINED
THE QUALITIES OF LAW EXPLAINED
LAWS CLASSIFIED BY FORMAL AUTHORSHIP
THE COMMON LAW
JUDGE-MADE LAW
LEGISLATION
POPULAR LAW
OTHER CLASSIFICATIONS ARE USEFUL
Development of Constitutions
CONSTITUTION DEFINED
ORIGIN OF THE TERM
LEVELLER CRITICISMS OF THE ENGLISH CONSTITUTION
EARLY CONSTITUTIONAL IDEAS IN AMERICA
CONSTITUTIONS OF THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD
POLITICAL OPPONENTS STAND AGREED ON CONSTITUTIONS
AMENDMENT
CONSTITUTIONS AND AMERICAN LEGALISM
THE IMPORTANT CONSEQUENCES OF AN "UNCHANGEABLE" CONSTITUTION
MEANINGLESS WRITTEN CONSTITUTIONS
Constitutionalism
CONSTITUTIONALISM AND CONSENSUS
RULE OF LAW DEFINED
JURIDICAL DEFENSE DEFINED
FACTORS AFFECTING CONSTITUTIONALISM
SEPARATION OF POWERS
ECONOMIC CONCENTRATIONS
CHURCH-STATE SEPARATION
STANDING ARMIES
ROLE OF UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE
THE VARIOUS FACTORS OPERATE TOGETHER IN CONSTITUTIONALISM
 
 
CHAPTER 3 : Legislatures
Government by Legislature
COMING OF THE AGE OF LEGISLATIVE SUPREMACY
LIMITS TO POWER OF LEGISLATURES ALWAYS PRESENT
MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF LEGISLATURES
BICAMERALISM
CONSERVATISM OF UPPER HOUSES
DECLINE OF UPPER HOUSES
EFFECTS OF REMAINING DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TILE TWO CHAMBERS
SPECIAL QUALIFICATIONS FOR CANDIDACIES
SIZE OF THE CHAMBERS
PAY OF MEMBERS
TENURE AND TURNOVER OF MEMBERSHIP
DIFFERENCES IN GEOGRAPHICAL APPORTIONMENT
Legislative Organization and Procedure
LEGISLATURES FOUNDED ON OPPOSING FORCES
"ESPRIT DE CORPS" OF ASSEMBLIES
CLASH OF EGALITARIAN AND OLIGARCHIC PRINCIPLES IN LEGISLATURES
FORMAL LEGISLATIVE PROCEDURE AND INFORMAL PROCESS
THE STRUGGLE FOR CONTROL OF OFFICES AND COMMITTEES
EXTERNAL INFLUENCES ENTERING THE LEGISLATIVE PROCESS
EXECUTIVE INFLUENCE
AGENCY PRESSURES
EFFECTS OF PRESSURE GROUPS
LEGISLATIVE BLOCS
PUBLIC OPINION
THE BRITISH CONTRAST
THE FRENCH PATTERN
THE SUPREME SOVIET OF THE U.S.S.R.
The Critical Age of Legislatures
AGE OF LEGISLATIVE SUPREMACY OVER
DIFFICULTY OF DEFINING LOCAL INTERESTS
WHY LOCALISM IS A SORE POINT TODAY
DOES A NATIONAL INTEREST EXIST?
CERTAIN LEGISLATURES STILL FORMIDABLE IMPEDIMENTS TO EXECUTIVES
DECLINE OF RESPECT FOR LEGISLATURES
RESIGNATION OF THE ACTIVE COMMERCIAL CLASSES
CLASS POLITICS ARE ANTI-LEGISLATURE
NATIONALISM FAVORS THE EXECUTIVE
INDICES OF THE LEGISLATURE'S WEAKENING
THE DEFENSE: ATTACK ON THE "NATIONAL INTEREST" IDEA
ALLIANCES OF LEGISLATURES WITH GROUP INTERESTS
CONTROLLING THE EXECUTIVE
LEGISLATURES MAY CLAIM ONLY A CRITICAL FUNCTION
INCREASING THE MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY OF LEGISLATURES
CLEANER DESKS AND SCIENTIFIC PROCEDURES
 
 
CHAPTER 4 : Executives and Chiefs of State
Functions of the Executive
EXECUTIVES AND ADMINISTRATORS DISTINGUISHED
UNIVERSAL TASKS OF AN EXECUTIVE
THE PLACE OF SUBJECT-MATTER KNOWLEDGE
THE DEMANDS OF POLITICS AGAINST ADMINISTRATIVE SKILL
U.S.S.R. HIERARCHY FAVORS POLITICS OVER SPECIALIZED SKILL
DISCIPLINE AMONG TOP EXECUTIVES
The Presidency: A Case Study
REPRESENTATIVE, LEADER, AND ADMINISTRATOR
THE PRESIDENT EXPRESSES NATIONAL SENTIMENTS
THE PRESIDENT AS POLICY LEADER
RECOMMENDING LEGISLATION
VETO POWER
FOREIGN RELATIONS
EXECUTION OF THE LAWS
EXECUTIVE DISCRETION
EXECUTIVE COMMANDS
APPOINTMENT AND REMOVAL POWER
THE EXECUTIVE BUDGET
NEW FORMS OF DISCRETION
Top Executive Structures
THE ROLE OF CHIEF EXECUTIVES IN A CULTURE
SIGNIFICANCE OF SINGLE EXECUTIVES
ADMINISTRATION HAS DEVELOPED FROM PERSONAL RULE
EFFECTS OF THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD
AMERICAN TRIALS OF EXECUTIVE ARRANGEMENTS
THE LEGISLATIVE- AND CONSTITUENCY-INFLUENCED DECENTRALIZED EXECUTIVE
 
 
CHAPTER 5 : Public Administration
The Goals of Administration
FUNCTIONAL GOALS
INSTRUMENTAL GOALS
STIPULATED GOALS
INTRUSIVE GOALS
Productivity and Utilization of Resources
THE USE OF POSDCORB IN HIERARCHICAL PYRAMIDS
THE DIVISION OF LABOR
LONG TENURE OF OFFICE AND "PAPER MEMORY"
ORGANIZATION OF A GOVERNMENTAL FUNCTION
LINE, AUXILIARY, AND STAFF AGENCIES
EFFICIENCY CONTROLS IN THE U.S.S.R.
JOB CLASSIFICATION
FORMAL AND INFORMAL ORGANIZATION
DISCIPLINE AND INTERNAL CONTROLS
INFORMAL PENALTIES USED MORE THAN FORMAL
Effects on the Administered Population
MINIMIZING THE DISTURBANCES CAUSED BY POLICIES
ADMINISTRATIVE POWERS OVER PEOPLE
IMPORTANCE OF AGGRESSIVE-DEFENSIVE PATTERN OF AGENCY ACTIONS
CONFLICTS BETWEEN "EFFICIENCY" AND "HUMAN RESISTANCES"
WHEN FORCE ENCOUNTERS RESISTANCES, PSYCHOLOGICAL METHODS ARE FOSTERED
HOW TO DETERMINE DISTRESS AMONG THE ADMINISTERED
THE SAMPLE SURVEY
Consultation with Administered Populations
CONSULTATION MEANS CO-ADMINISTRATION
DIFFICULTIES OF CONSULTATION
Personal Careers and Partisanship
INTRUSIVE OBJECTIVES OF ADMINISTRATION
PRIVATE MOTIVES FOR PUBLIC SERVICE
PRIVATE MOTIVES TAMED BY THE SERVICE
PROMOTION BY MERIT NO SIMPLE MATTER
PARTISANSHIP AND ADMINISTRATION
CAN PARTIES DO WITHOUT PATRONAGE?
The Customs of Administrative Offices
AGENCIES EXIST FOR THEIR OWN SAKE
STRUGGLE FOR SURVIVAL AND EMPIRE-BUILDING
"OCCUPATIONAL PERSONALITY"
AMERICAN BUREAUCRACY NOT RIGID
HOW BUREAUCRATIC PERSONALITY IS BORN
 
 
CHAPTER 6 : The Courts
The Rise and Power of Court Systems
SELF-HELP IN LAW ENFORCEMENT
DEVELOPMENT OF ROMAN AND ENGLISH LAW SYSTEMS
ROMAN LAW MORE SYSTEMATIC
ENGLISH-TYPE COURTS MORE HOSTILE TO LEGISLATION
ROMAN AND TEUTONIC LAW SIDE BY SIDE FOR CENTURIES
NEITHER SYSTEM IDENTIFIED WITH "LIBERTY"
THE GROWTH OF JUDICIAL INDEPENDENCE
ENGLISH COURTS AND THE SEPARATION OF POWERS
ENGLISH COURT SYSTEM
FRENCH COURT SYSTEM AND THE ADMINISTRATIVE COURTS
APPOINTMENT AND ELECTION OF JUDGES IN AMERICA
Judicial Review and the American Courts
JUDICIAL REVIEW NOT A RADICAL STEP
MARBURY V. MADISON
CONFLICT OVER THE DECISION
THE RESULTS OF JUDICIAL REVIEW CONSIDERABLE
THE FEDERAL COURT SYSTEM BASED ON CONSTITUTION
INDEPENDENT STATE COURT SYSTEMS
The Judicial Process
JUDICIAL PROCESS AND CONSTITUTIONALISM
THE IMPORTANT ELEMENTS OF JUDICIAL PROCESS
WIDE VARIETY OF PROCEDURES AMONG VARIOUS LEVELS OF COURTS
CERTAIN RIGHTS PRESENT GENERALLY
INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENT ON COURT PROCEDURE
JUSTICE METED OUT IS INFLUENCED BY SOCIETY
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL PRESSURES
EFFECT OF MODE OF SELECTION
PERSONALITY OF JUDGES A FACTOR
JUDICIAL LOGIC NOT A CLOSED SYSTEM
THE IMPOSSIBILITY OF PURELY "DEDUCTIVE" LAW
THE "LAW" AS "PROPHECY"
THE FALLACIOUS IDEA OF "NO RULES IN LAW"
 
 
CHAPTER 7 : Local Institutions
From Tribe to Metropolis
UNIVERSAL NATURE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT
THE SUBJECTION OF INDEPENDENT CITIES TO NATIONS
REGIONALISM AND LOCALISM REMAIN STRONG
ADMINISTRATIVE REGIONALISM VERSUS POLITICAL REGIONALISM
ADMINISTRATIVE DISTRICTS
UNITS OF GOVERNMENT
URBANIZATION
URBAN AND RURAL SOCIETIES
THE INTERNAL COMPLICATIONS OF LOCAL SOCIETY
LOCAL ATTACHMENTS VARY AMONG INDIVIDUALS
LOCAL PROXIMITY GROUPS
HIGH PHYSICAL MOBILITY IN AMERICA
THE SUBURBAN PROBLEM
Patterns of Local Political Institutions
COMMON FEATURES OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT
LEGISLATION REGULATING LOCAL GOVERNMENT COMES FROM ABOVE
STRUCTURE OF CONTROL FROM ABOVE
ADMINISTRATIVE RULE IN FRANCE
THE COMMUNIST PARTY AS SUPERVISOR OF SOVIET LOCALITIES
LOCAL POLITICAL OFFICERS
FUNCTIONS OF LOCAL OFFICERS ANALOGOUS TO NATIONAL ONES
THE STRUCTURE OF AMERICAN CITY GOVERNMENT
CITY COUNCILS
COUNCIL-MANAGER FORM STRESSES EFFICIENCY
COMMISSION AND TOWN-MEETING FORMS
AMERICAN TOWNSHIP AND COUNTY GOVERNMENT
GOVERNMENTAL FORMS MORE UNIFORM ABROAD
SEPARATION OF POWERS WEAK IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT
Politics, Patronage, and Administration
"COURTHOUSE GANG" AND CITY HALL
LOCAL GOVERNMENT WITHOUT POLITICS IMPOSSIBLE
LOCAL POLITICAL MACHINES AND ADMINISTRATION
LOCAL CAREER ADMINISTRATORS
Outstanding Local Problems
STATE-LOCAL CO-OPERATION
CONSOLIDATION OF UNITS OF GOVERNMENT
HOME-RULE MOVEMENTS
DISTINCTION BETWEEN ADMINISTRATIVE AND POLITICAL CONTROLS
 
 
CHAPTER 8 : Federalism
The Varieties of Federalism
LOCAL AND CENTRAL BODIES MAY BE DISSIMILAR
FEDERALISM A LOCAL-CENTRAL COMPROMISE
THE STRENGTH OF LOCAL VALUES
CENTRALIZATION NOT INEXORABLE DESTINY
THE DELIAN LEAGUE
THE GERMAN EMPIRE, 1870-1918
THE SWISS CONFEDERACY
THE REPUBLIC OF ARGENTINA
THE BRITISH COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS
THE UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS
CONFEDERATION IN THE UNITED STATES
Federalism in America
THE SOLUTION OF THE CONSTITUTION
DIVISION OF FUNCTIONS AND AUTHORITY
INTERLOCKING RELATIONSHIPS
THE POLITICAL POWER
THE JUDICIAL POWER
THE TAXING POWER
THE PROTECTIVE POWER
SEPARATIST FEDERALISM
CO-OPERATIVE FEDERALISM
GRANTS
CONDITIONAL GRANTS
CO-OPERATION WITHOUT A FINANCIAL NEXUS
INTERSTATE RELATIONS
Modern Federalism in the Balance
FEDERALISM OPERATING UNDER ADVERSE CONDITIONS
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CENTRALIZATION
ECONOMIC AND EXTERNAL CRISIS
INEQUALITIES AND DEPENDENCY OF LOCALITIES
ENTHUSIASM FOR UNIFORMITY
THE FAILURE OF WILL
 
 
CHAPTER 9 : International Organization
Roman World Order and Its Medieval Myth
ANCIENT GREEKS FAILED TO ORGANIZE PEACE
TECHNIQUES OF ROMAN EXPANSION
"E PLURIBUS UNUM"
"JUS GENTIUM"
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL HERITAGE OF ROME
The Equilibrium of Nations and International Law
FORMATION OF THE MODERN STATE SYSTEM
BALANCE OF POWER DISTINGUISHED
HISTORICAL EXAMPLES
THE STRATEGY OF THE BALANCE
PREMISES OF BALANCE-OF-POWER POLITICS
THE DECLINE OF DIPLOMACY
THE CAREER OF INTERNATIONAL LAW
METHODS OF SETTLING INTERNATIONAL DIFFERENCES
SOURCES AND SANCTIONS OF INTERNATIONAL LAW
Peace and Law by Co-operative Force
THE VARIETY OF PLANS
RELATION OF BALANCE OF POWER TO A WORLD ORDER
ORIGINS OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
COMPLEX ORGANIZATION OF THE LEAGUE
THE FAILURE OF THE MAJOR GOALS
THE UNITED NATIONS TRIES AGAIN: THE SECURITY COUNCIL
THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY AND MINOR BODIES
Regionalism
Capabilities of the United Nations
 
 
CHAPTER 10 : Epilogue: Political Science and the New World Order
The New Political Science
SOURCES OF CHANGE
NEW METHODS AND SUBJECTS
THE FUTURE DISCIPLINE
INTERDISCIPLINARY WORK EXPANDED
THE NEW LANGUAGE
THE MACHINERY OF SCIENCE
POLICY SCIENCE TO BE ENLARGED
The Transforming World
RECENT ECONOMIC AND INSTITUTIONAL CHANGE
THE COMING CRISIS
THE COMMUNIST METHOD
CHANGING COMMUNISM
WEAKNESSES OF NON-COMMUNISTS
TIME AND EDUCATION
MILITARY STRENGTH AND CONTROLS NEEDED
THE VITAL INTELLIGENTSIA
 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY