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ALFRED DE GRAZIA

POLITICAL BEHAVIOR

Volume One of

THE ELEMENTS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

NEW, REVISED EDITION

in Two Volumes

INTRODUCTION
 
Chapter 1 : POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY
 
THE BASIC IDEAS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
    AUTHORITY
    THE WORLD AS MATHEMATICAL ORDER
    MAN AS THE MEASURE
    THE POLITICAL COMMUNITY
    THE DIVISION OF LABOR AND HTERARCHY
    DEMOCRACY AND THE SOCIAL COMPACT
    CONSTITUTIONALISM
    THE EMPIRICAL METHOD IN POLITICAL STUDY
    PLEASURE-PAIN AND POLITICS
    A WORLD ORDER: FRATERNITY AND LAW
    EXISTENTIAL POLITICAL ACTIVISM
IDEAS DERIVED MAINLY FROM THE MIDDLE AGES
    INTROSPECTIVE METHOD
    THEORY OF WORLD HISTORY
    SYSTEMATIC ETHICAL-POLITICAL THEORY
    REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT
EARLY MODERN IDEAS
    VALUE-FREE POLITICAL SCIENCE
    POWER POLITICS
    LIBERTY AND. THE LIBERAL STATE
THE NEW SCIENCE
    RATIONALISTIC ANALYSIS OF LAW
    APPLIED SOCIAL SCIENCE
    ECONOMIC DETERMINISM
    SOCIOLOGY OF CLASS
    MODELS OF SOCIETY
    THE ELITE
    COMMUNICATIONS
    OPERATIONAL INQUIRY
    UNCONSCIOUS FACTORS IN POLITICAL BEHAVIOR
THE OBLIGATIONS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
 
Chapter 2: THINKING ABOUT POLITICS
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF POLITICS
    POLITICS IS AN ART
    POLITICS AND COMMON SENSE
    SCIENCE NO SUBSTITUTE FOR EXPERIENCE
    SCIENCE MAY BE MISLEADING
WHAT IS "POLITICAL"?
    POLITICAL SCIENCE AND OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCES ARE MINGLED
    MOST POLITICAL SCIENTISTS ARE SUBJECT-AREA SPECIALISTS
    EMPHASIS ON SUBJECT-AREAS CRITICIZED
    POLICY SCIENCE
    FACTOR SPECIALIZATION
    WHAT EVENTS FORM THE DATA OF POLITICS?
THE POLITICAL SCIENTIST AT WORK
    THE GENERAL METHODS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
    THE TECHNIQUES OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
    PROBLEMS OF LANGUAGE
CREATIVE THINKING AND ACTING IN POLITICS
    A PRESCRIPTION FOR SOLVING POLITICAL PROBLEMS
    DISSOCIATING FACTS AND DESIRES
    RECOGNIZING DIFFERENCES
    KNOWING INSTITUTIONAL OBSTACLES
    THE CALCULATED RISK
    DEVISING POLITICAL STRATEGY
    CONTINUAL REVISIONS OF GOALS
 
Chapter 3: LEADERS AND FOLLOWERS
 
THE LEADER: HERO OR PAWN?
    THE "GREAT MAN" THEORY OF HISTORY
    TOLSTOI'S INFINITESIMAL ELEMENTS
    LEADERS ARE BOTH UNIQUE AND TYPICAL
    GREAT AND MINOR LEADERS CAN BE STUDIED TOGETHER
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEADERSHIP
    TRAITS OF LEADERS
    MOTIVATION OF LEADERS
    CHARISMATIC LEADERS
    DANGERS OF OVEREXTENDING THE ANALYSIS OF CHARISMA
THE GENERAL SKILLS OF POLITICAL LEADERS
    SKILL IN USING THE INSTRUMENTS OF AUTHORITY
    OCCUPATIONS OF POLITICIANS
    IMPORTANT POLITICAL SKILLS
SOCIAL CLASS AND POLITICAL MOBILITY
    SOCIAL CLASS AND POLITICAL SKILL
    SOCIAL CLASS DEFINED
    CASTE SYSTEMS
    SOCIAL MOBILITY IN THE UNITED STATES
    INFLUENCES UPON POLITICAL MOBILITY
    SOCIAL MOBILITY IN EUROPE
    THE POLITISTS
    THE "IRON LAW OF OLIGARCHY"
    POLITISTS NOT A HOMOGENEOUS GROUP
    SIZE OF THE POLITIST GROUP
    AMERICAN POLITISTS
    SPECIAL FUNCTIONAL CONDITIONS OF LEADERSHIP
THE TOTAL ANALYSIS OF LEADERSHIP
    THE PROBLEM OF NUMEROUS CONTRADICTORY LEADER TYPES
    LEADERSHIP PART OF AN INTRAGROUP RELATIONSHIP
 
Chapter 4 : THE COMMUNITY AND SPECIAL INTERESTS
 
THE POLITICAL COMMUNITY AND CONSENSUS
    THE STATE AND COMMUNITY CONTRASTED
    OVERLAPPING COMMUNITIES
    THE COMMUNITY A NETWORK OF COMMUNICATIONS
    GREAT AND LOCAL COMMUNITIES FORMED BY PHYSICAL INTERDEPENDENCE
    HOW A COMMUNITY ENFORCES CONFORMITY
    THE COMMUNITY SANCTIONS
    THE PUBLIC IS THE POLITICAL COMMUNITY
    THE VARIETY OF PUBLICS
    RELATION OF COMMUNITY BELIEFS TO PUBLIC AFFAIRS
    CHANGING ATTITUDES TOWARDS POLITICAL INSTRUMENTS
COMMUNITY PROBLEMS AND CONSENSUS
    CONFLICTING LOYALTIES HARM CONSENSUS
    HOW COHESIVE IS THE MODERN GREAT COMMUNITY?
    CONSENSUS AS AGREEMENT ON BASIC PRINCIPLES
    DEWEY'S "HEALTHY" COMMUNITY AS CONSENSUS
    REQUIREMENTS OF COMMUNITY INTEGRATION
SEPARATISM AND VOTING BEHAVIOR
    SUBCOMMUNITY AFFILIATIONS (SEPARATISM)
    TRADITION
    PSYCHOLOGICAL TRADITION
    STATISTICAL TRADITION
    LOCALISM
    ECONOMIC FORCES
    IN EUROPE, SOCIAL GROUPINGS MORE MEANINGFUL
    RELIGIOUS INFLUENCES ON VOTING BEHAVIOR
    NATIONALITY AND RACE
    SEX
PUBLIC OPINION
    RELATIONS WITH COMMUNITY AND PUBLIC
    PUBLIC OPINION NOT CONSENSUS
    DEFINITION OF PUBLIC OPINION
    SIX DIMENSIONS OF PUBLIC OPINION
    THE NUMBER OF VARIANT BELIEFS
    POSITION OF SOCIAL GROUPS ON THE ISSUE
    INTENSITY OF CONVICTION
    NUMBERS OF ADHERENTS TO A BELIEF
    ORGANIZATION AND CRITICAL CONTROLS
    PATTERNS OF PUBLIC OPINION ARE UNSTABLE
THE MAJORITY
    MAJORITIES AS SIMPLE OPINIONS
    THE MAJORITY AS A WAY OF RESOLVING ISSUES
    EMPLOYMENT OF OTHER PRINCIPLES OF RESOLVING ISSUES
    BEYOND OPINION AND EXPEDIENCY
    MEDIEVAL THEORY OF THE MAJORITY
    IS THE MAJORITY OMNICOMPETENT?
    MAJORITY AS COURT OF LAST RESORT
    THE MAJORITY IS MORE THAN OPINION OR MERE EXPEDIENT
 
Chapter 5 : REPRESENTATION AND ELECTIONS
 
REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT
    ANCIENT REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT
    IMPORTANCE OF MIDDLE AGES TO REPRESENTATION
    CONVOKING THE COMMONS
    REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT BY AN OLIGARCHY
    ADVENT OF MODERN REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT
    MAJOR PROBLEMS OF REPRESENTATION AND ELECTIONS TODAY
UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE
    PROPERTY AND TAX QUALIFICATIONS
    SEX
    NATIONALITY AND RACE
    EDUCATION
    CITIZENSHIP
    RESIDENCE
    ABSENTEE VOTING
    DISCRIMINATION AGAINST CAPITAL CITIES
    AGE
    PLURAL VOTING
    MISCELLANEOUS RESTRICTIONS
    SUFFRAGE NEARLY UNIVERSAL
    VOTING AND NONVOTING
    SITUATIONAL FACTORS AFFECTING PARTICIPATION
    COMPULSORY VOTING
    RESTRICTIONS ON THE MEANING AND POWER OF THE VOTE
    HISTORICALLY, THE SUFFRAGE BROUGHT CHANGES
    ELECTIONS CALL THE PUBLIC AND OFFICERS TO ATTENTION
    THE BALLOT
    ELECTION ADMINISTRATION
    AMERICAN AND SOVIET SYSTEMS COMPARED
THE USE OF ELECTION FORMS TO ACHIEVE VALUES
    THE CONSTRUCTION OF CONSTITUENCIES
    APPORTIONMENT BY GOVERNMENTAL BOUNDARIES
    APPORTIONMENT BY TERRITORIAL SURVEY
    OFFICIAL BODIES
    FUNCTIONAL DIVISIONS
    FREE APPORTIONMENT BY VOLUNTARY CONSTITUENCIES
    "ROTTEN BOROUGHS"
    GERRYMANDERING
    BALLOTING PROCESS: MAJORITY AND PLURALITY
    FORCING A MAJORITY EXPRESSION
    MINORITY REPRESENTATION THROUGH BALLOTING ARRANGEMENTS
    MINORITY REPRESENTATION: THE CUMULATIVE VOTE
    MINORITY REPRESENTATION: P.R. BY THE SINGLE TRANSFERABLE VOTE
    MINORITY REPRESENTATION: LIST SYSTEM OF P.R.
    EFFECTS OF MAJORITY AND MINORITY SYSTEMS
    RECONVERSION OF ELECTIONS TO "TOWN MEETINGS"
    POLITICAL PARTIES AND THEIR REGULATION
 
Chapter 6 : THE POLITICAL PARTY
 
THE HISTORY AND TYPES OF PARTIES
    ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL FACTIONALISM
    CHANGING TECHNIQUES OF FACTIONS
    BEGINNINGS OF ENGLISH PARTIES
    MODERN PARTIES BEGIN IN AMERICA
    THE MASS PARTY OF JEFFERSON
    SIGNIFICANCE OF UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE
    ADVENT OF CLASS PARTIES
    MAX WEBER ON PARTIES
    THE GUIDING THEMES OF PARTY LIFE
    NATIONALISTIC PARTIES
PARTIES FOUNDED ON NONBASIC ISSUES
    PARTIES INSPIRED BY POLITICAL AND MORAL IDEAS
    THE AMERICAN TWO-PARTY SYSTEM
    STRUCTURAL SUPPORTS OF TWO PARTIES
    TWO-PARTY PSYCHOLOGY
    DECENTRALIZATION OF AMERICAN PARTIES
    THE POLITICIAN AND ISSUES
    THE ORGANIZATION OF THE PARTY SYSTEM
    CONGRESS HAS STRONG LOCAL INTERESTS
    INTEGRATED STATE ORGANIZATIONS POSSIBLE
    THE PARTY MACHINES
    THE PRECINCT CAPTAINS
    HETEROGENEITY OF AMERICAN PARTIES
    PARTY DIFFERENCES AS SEEN BY POLITICIANS
CLASS AND CHARISMATIC PARTIES
    CLASS PARTIES
    THE ENGLISH LABOUR PARTY
    STRIKING ISSUES RAISED
    SOCIAL COMPOSITION OF LABOUR PARTY
    PARTY INTEGRATION AND CENTRALIZATION ARE STRONG
    THE LABOUR PARTY CONFERENCE
    THE PARLIAMENTARY LABOUR PARTY
    CHARISMATIC PARTIES
    DE GAULLE AND FRANCE
    WHEN A PARTY IS NO PARTY
    A DECISIVE GOVERNMENT DEMANDED
    R.P.F.'S DECLINE AND DE GAULLE'S RISE
RELIGIOUS AND ELITE PARTIES
    RELIGIOUS PARTIES
    WHENCE COME THE NEW RELIGIOUS PARTIES
    THE ITALIAN CHRISTIAN-DEMOCRATS
    IMPELLING PARTY MOTIVATION
    PARTIES OF THE ELITE
    THE SOVIET COMMUNIST PARTY
    COMMUNIST PARTY MONOPOLIZES POLITICAL CHANCES
    SOCIAL COMPOSITION
OLIGARCHIC INFLUENCES AND PARTY TRENDS
    OLIGARCHICAL INFLUENCES IN PARTIES
    TRENDS IN THE POLITICAL PARTY SYSTEM
    EXECUTIVE BRANCH OBTAINING STRONGER CONTROL OF PARTIES
    UNITED STATES SYSTEM STILL RESISTS TREND
    PARTY DIRECTOR'S INCREASING CONTROL OVER MACHINERY
    PARTIES GROWING CLOSER TO THE GOVERNMENT
    PARTIES MUST SEEK INCREASINGLY SOLID GROUP SUPPORT
 
Chapter 7 : PRESSURE GROUPS
 
    PRESSURE GROUPS PART OF THE STRUGGLE OVER VALUES
    PRESSURE GROUPS IN DIFFERENT SOCIAL SYSTEMS
    THREE LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF PRESSURES
INDIVIDUAL INFLUENCE IN POLITICS
    SELF-INTEREST IN POLITICS
    ANY INTERESTED INDIVIDUAL CAN EXERT MUCH INFLUENCE
    PRESSURES CAN BE GOOD OR BAD
    POLITICAL HISTORY IS COLORED BY UNENDING PERSONAL INTRIGUE
    USE OF MONEY TO INFLUENCE OFFICIALS AND PUBLIC
    THE USE OF OFFICE FOR PECUNIARY GAIN
    SALE OF OFFICES
    SOLICITATION OF MONEY FOR POLITICAL USE
    USE OF MONEY
    DIFFICULTY OF DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP PRESSURES
    ORIGINS OF PRESSURE GROUPS
THE LOBBY AND PRESSURE GROUPS
    PRIMITIVE LOBBYING TECHNIQUES
    TRANSFORMATION OF LOBBIES
    NUMBER OF LOBBIES LARGE TODAY
    THE CHIEF NATIONAL LOBBIES AND GROUPINGS
    BUSINESS INTERESTS ARE NOT UNIFIED INTERNALLY
    CERTAIN CENTRALIZED TENDENCIES EXIST
    EUROPEAN BUSINESS PRESSURE
    CLEAVAGES AMONG UNIONS
    AMERICAN LABOR LESS ACTIVE IN POLITICS THAN EUROPEAN
    MAJOR FARM ORGANIZATIONS
    VETERANS ORGANIZATIONS
    REFORM LOBBIES
    TECHNIQUES OF MODERN LOBBIES
    TECHNIQUES OF MODERN LOBBIES
    FAVORITE LABOR PRESSURE TACTICS
    FARM INFLUENCE ABETTED BY CLOSE RELATIONSHIPS TO GOVERNMENT
    ORGANIZED PRESSURES INEVITABLE TODAY
    POPULAR FALLACIES REGARDING LOBBIES
LEGAL REPRESENTATION OF INTERESTS
    INTEREST GROUPS' QUASI-OFFICIAL FUNCTIONS
    ROLE OF ESTATES IN MEDIEVAL TIMES
    THE GILDS
    REVOLUTIONS DESTROYED ESTATES AND GILD SYSTEMS
    RESULTS OF PURE INDIVTDUALISM
    COMMUNISM AND SYNDICALISM
    MODERN UNIONS AND GILDS COMPARED
    PROFESSIONAL INTEREST REPRESENTATION
    THE NEW PATTERN OF INDUSTRIAL INSTITUTIONS
    CORPORATISM
    FUNCTIONAL REPRESENTATION
    U. S. A. INHOSPITABLE TO FUNCTIONAL REPRESENTATION
    SIGNIFICANCE OF DEPRESSION AND WAR EXPERIMENTS
 
Chapter 8 : CIVIL CONFLICT AND WAR
 
FORCE AND VIOLENCE
    WHEN IS COERCION LEGITIMATE
    VIOLENT CONFLICTS AMONG ORGANS OF STATE
    PHYSICAL COERCION DEFINED
    POLITICS COMPOUNDED OF COERCION AND OTHER MEANS
    CHILDHOOD TRAINING IN COERCION
THE OBJECTIVES OF PHYSICAL COERCION
    MOTIVES OF COERCION USUALLY PLURAL
    COERCION FOR ECONOMIC ENDS
    CLASS WARFARE AND SOCIAL STATUS
    COERCION FOR SAFETY AND PROTECTION
    POWER AS AN AIM OF COERCION
    DESTRUCTIVENESS AS A ROOT OF COERCION
    PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY OF DESTRUCTIVENESS
    OTHER THEORIES OF DESTRUCTIVENESS
THE LARGER PATTERNS OF COERCION
    COERCION ASSUMES TYPICAL FORMS
    WARFARE AND REVOLUTIONS NOT DYING OUT
    THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF PRINCIPLES OF VIOLENCE
    PATTERNS OF THE COUP D'ETAT
    CHARACTER OF REVOLUTIONARIES
    REVOLUTION IS A MORE FUNDAMENTAL CHANGE
    AN ORGANIZED FORCE LIES BEHIND REVOLUTIONS
    GROUP MOTIVES NECESSARY FOR REVOLUTIONS
    CLASS REVOLUTIONS
    NATIONALITIES AND CIVIL STRIFE
    REGIONAL AND RELIGIOUS CONFLICTS
    WHAT FORCES CAUSE REVOLUTION TODAY
    RELATIONS BETWEEN REVOLUTION AND WAR
    THE ELEMENTS OF NATIONALISM
    THE DYNAMIC CHARACTER OF NATIONALISM
    THE CAUSES OF WAR SUMMARIZED
    CLOSE RELATION OF WAR POLICY TO PEACE POLICY
    THE PRECIPITATION OF WARS
    FACTORS IN THE ABILITY TO WIN WARS
    THE BROAD MEANING OF PREPAREDNESS
THE EFFECTS AND LIMITS OF PHYSICAL COERCION
    THE OUTRIGHT REJECTION OF COERCION
    NONVIOLENCE AND CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE
    COERCION, LIKE OTHER POLITICAL WEAPONS, IS LIMITED
    COERCION SOMETIMES SUCCEEDS
    FORCE AND VIOLENCE OFTEN IN DISREPUTE
    COERCION OFTEN WASTEFUL AND CRUDE
 
Chapter 9 : THINKING ABOUT DEMOCRACY
 
BASIC QUESTIONS OF VALUES
    GREAT MORALISTS DIFFER OVER THE "GOOD"
    GREAT SCIENTISTS DIFFER OVER HUMAN NATURE
    MORAL PROPAGANDISTS OFTEN MASQUERADE AS POLITICAL SCIENTISTS
    SCIENCE CANNOT SAY WHAT DEMOCRACY "OUGHT TO BE"
    YET THEORIES OF ETHICS AND SCIENCE ARE BASICALLY RELATED
THE SOCIAL SETTING OF DEMOCRACY
    THE SEARCH FOR DEMOCRATIC SOCIETIES
    GENERAL FREEDOM OF ACTION AND SPEECH
    UPLIFTING THE COMMON PEOPLE
    CONSTITUTIONALISM AND DISPERSAL OF CONTROLS
    HIGH SOCIAL AND POLITICAL MOBILITY
    HIGH LEVEL OF PERSONAL DISCONTENT
    UNDERVALUATION OF POLITICAL LEADERS
    EMPHASIS ON EDUCATION AND ECONOMIC MEASURES
    IS DEMOCRACY ULTIMATELY DEPENDENT ON WELL-BEING
THE FOUR MORAL POSITIONS IN DEMOCRACY
    THE FOUR MORAL POSITIONS OF THOUGHT AND ACTION
    THE TECHNIQUE OF STUDYING MORAL POSITIONS
    THESE MORAL POSITIONS UNIVERSAL, NOT ONLY DEMOCRATIC
    EGALITARIAN DEMOCRACY
    SCIENTIFIC DIFFICULTIES OF THE EGALITARIAN POSITION
    MORAL DIFFICULTIES OF THE EGALITARIAN POSITION
    THE POLITICAL DEMANDS OF EGALITARIANISM
    CONSERVATIVE DEMOCRACY
    SCIENTIFIC ASPECTS OF CONSERVATISM
    CONSERVATIVE IDEA ESSENTIAL TO SCIENCE AND MORALITY
    BURKE'S CONSERVATISM
    ELITIST DEMOCRACY
    ELITISM INESCAPABLE IN SCIENCE
    A PRIMITIVE SOCIAL SCIENCE FAVORS ELITISM
    HOW ELITISTS ARE FAVORED
    BUT ELITES HAVE NEVER BEEN SECURE
    DEMOCRATIC ELITISTS
    RELATIVIST DEMOCRACY
    RELATIVISM CONNECTED WITH A MONEY SOCIETY
    MADISON'S VIEW OF SOCIETY
    THE "OPEN SOCIETY" VERSUS PLANNING
DEMOCRACY AS A WHOLE
    VARIETIES OF DEMOCRATIC THOUGHT ARE INTERDEPENDENT
    DEMOCRACY AN EQUILIBRIUM COMPOSED OF CONTRADICTIONS
    APPLIED DEMOCRACY MOST DIFFICULT OF ALL SCIENCES
    DEMOCRACY AND SCIENCE INTERDEPENDENT
    DEMOCRACY NOT A UNITARY WHOLE
 
Chapter 10 : LIBERTY AND PUBLIC POLICY
 
RIGHTS, LIBERTY, RESTRAINTS, AND PLANS
    A RIGHT IS PROTECTED BY LAW
    SOMETIMES COMMUNITY CUSTOMS MODIFY A RIGHT
    THE COURTS MORE FREQUENTLY ACT AS GUARANTORS
    A LIBERTY OR FREEDOM IS BROADER THAN A RIGHT
    VICTORIOUS LIBERTIES BECOME RIGHTS
    SOCIAL AND POLITICAL RESTRAINTS
    A POLICY IS A COLLECTIVE LIBERTY
    RELATIONS OF PLANNING TO POLICY
    THE GENERAL RELATIONS OF LIBERTY, RESTRAINTS, POLICIES, AND PLANS
RATIONAL AND IRRATIONAL POLICIES
    DIFFERENCE HINGES ON FOREKNOWLEDGE OF CONSEQUENCES
    RATIONALITY IS WITH REFERENCE TO THE DESIRES OF THE ACTOR
    OMNISCIENT PLANS DO NOT EXIST
THE SOCIAL ORGANIZATION OF POLICY
    INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY ON POLITICALLY RELEVANT MATTERS
    LIBERTY AND PUBLIC POLICY
    PRIVATE GROUP POLICY
    POLICY BY PUBLIC JURISDICTIONS
    WHAT JURISDICTION SHALL MAKE POLICY
THE GOALS OF POLICY
    COMPLEXITY OF MOTIVES
    "LEGISLATIVE WILL" A USEFUL FICTION
    PROPAGANDA STRUGGLES REGARDING GOALS
    ORGANIZING THE POLICY FUNCTION WITHIN JURISDICTIONS
    LEGISLATURES INDIFFERENT TO PLANNING
    EXECUTIVE POLICY METHODS MORE PLANNED
    RELATION OF STAFF PLANS TO OPERATIONS
    WHEN A POLICY METHOD BECOMES A PLAN
    COMMON NEGLECT OF CONSEQUENCES IN POLICY AND PLANNING
    IMPROVED SCIENCE OF PLANNING A VITAL NEED
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY
 
FOOTNOTES